Police Corruption

Drug-Related Police Corruption: An Increasing Problem Throughout Law Enforcement Agencies In The United States In the United States, drug-related police corruption is becoming an increasingly, unjustifiable problem throughout the ranks of law enforcement agencies. Many variables exist to explain the reason for their actions, but ultimately, what makes them do it? Knowing how to recognize a corrupted officer or one exhibiting signs of traveling down the wrong path is essential in order to mitigate the problem.Law enforcement leadership also plays a vital role in the identity and prevention of drug-related corruption. Drug-related police corruption is any act by a sworn police officer that is the sale, manufacture, distribution or supporting of drug activities for the personal gain of the officer. Why is this corruption a problem? Many law enforcement officers who are sworn in to protect the lives of our citizens, to abide and uphold the law, are doing the exact opposite, and this is a problem. The purpose of the study is to provide empirical data on cases of drug-related police corruption.It identifies and describes incidents in which police officers are arrested for criminal offenses associated with drug-related corruption. Data was analyzed on 221 drug-related arrest cases of officers employed by police agencies throughout the USA. Findings show that drug-related corruption involves a wide range of criminal offenses and that cocaine is the most prevalent drug. Older officers and those used by large companies are less likely than others to lose their jobs after a drug-related arrest (Philip Stinson, 2013). Drug-related police corruption is a problem that will not go away on its own which is evident by the statistics.The first step in preventing corruption would be to recognize the signs of a corrupted officer. Learn what puts an officer at risk of becoming corrupted, and what makes them defy the law they swore to uphold, protect and defend. Drug corruption is b orn out of police attitudes because if an officer is lacking the right attitude then corruption can become a mainstay for that officer (Cheurprakobkit, 1998). For example, if any officers believe that the enforcement of drug laws is a waste of their time and that they are underpaid, they may accept a bribe from a drug trafficker to allow the trade.This places a little more money in their pocket and allows them not to worry about enforcing a law they may not agree with. Knowing how to identify the signs of a corrupted officer is a necessary step to decreasing the amount of drug-related corruption, and may one day lead to mitigating the issue. What leads law enforcement to corruption? After looking at yearly sales of different drugs in the United States, it was found that weed brings in about $3 billion dollars, heroin $10 billion, and cocaine, a whopping $38 billion dollars annually (Stevens, 1999).If you pay attention to these numbers, you can clearly see how easy it would be for a low paid, frustrated police officer to turn corrupt and help with the sale, transport, or manufacturing of illegal substances. To reduce police corruption, the commissions recommend creating external oversight over the police with a unique focus on integrity, improving recruitment and training, guidance from supervisors of all ranks about integrity, holding all commanders responsible for the misbehavior of subordinates, and changing the organization’s culture to tolerate misbehavior less (Perito, 2011).While drug-related police corruption continues to pose a threat at some level in every law enforcement agency, it does not necessarily mean there is a high percentage of corrupt law enforcement officials. While it is a problem, it could be prevented with proactive steps – observing the actions and lifestyles of these police officers. There is an opportunity for corruption wherever there are drugs present, and no law enforcement official should be above suspicion. Corrupt ion has been identified at the lowest and highest levels. Police Corruption Police corruption is the misuse of police authority for personal gain. Examples include extortion (for example, demanding money for not writing traffic tickets) and bribery (for example, accepting money in exchange for not enforcing the law).The costs of police corruptionPolice corruption carries high costs. First, a corrupt act is a crime. Second, police corruption detracts from the integrity of the police and tarnishes the public image of law enforcement. Third, corruption protects other criminal activity such as drug dealing and prostitution. Protected criminal activities are often lucrative sources of income for organized crime. The causes of police corruptionAccording to the rotten apple theory, corruption is the work of a few, dishonest, immoral police officers. Experts dismiss this theory because it fails to explain why so many corrupt officers become concentrated in some police organizations but not others. Another explanation pinpoints U.S. society's use of the criminal law to enforce morality.Unenforceable laws governing moral standards promote corruption because they provide criminal organizations with a financial interest in undermining law enforcement. Narcotic corruption, for example, is an inevitable consequence of drug enforcement. Providers of these illegal goods and service use part of their profits to bribe the police in order to ensure the continuation of criminal enterprises. Rooting out police corruptionWhen police controls break down and a scandal occurs, special investigating commissions can mobilize public opinion and rally public support for anticorruption and antiviolence reforms. Commissions get information from the police department, pinpoint where the internal controls of the police have failed, and recommend changes in policy. The problem with these commissions is that they usually disappear after finishing their reports. Paul Chevigny asserts that continuing independent auditors would be more effective than commissions. He envisi ons the function of such auditors as investigating a range of police problems, including corruption and  brutality. Prosecuting corrupt police officersSince corruption involves criminal behavior, prosecution of corrupt police officers is possible. Since prosecutors depend on the police to gather evidence and develop cases, however, they often don't want to â€Å"bite the hand that feeds them.† Legislative controlLegislators could reevaluate laws that create the potential for corruption. Such a reassessment would be based on the recognition that a major portion of police corruption is an outgrowth of laws that criminalize drug use, prostitution, and gambling. Any serious attempt to fight police corruption must wrestle with the decriminalization issue. Decriminalization involves removing the criminal label from victimless crimes by legalizing and regulating them. Decriminalization would contribute significantly to improving the police corruption problem. It is doubtful, howev er, that Congress or any state legislature will seriously consider legalizing drugs or any other prohibited goods and services in the near future.

History of organic chemistry Essay

Chemistry has been called the science of what things are. Its intent is the exploration of the nature of the materials that fabricate our physical environment, why they hold the different properties that depict them, how their atomic structure may be fathomed, and how they may be manipulated and changed. Although organic reactions have been conducted by man since the discovery of fire, the science of Organic chemistry did not develop until the turn of the eighteenth century, mainly in France at first, then in Germany, later on in England. By far the largest variety of materials that bombard us are made up of organic elements. The beginning of the Ninetieth century was also the dawn of chemistry, all organic substances were understood as all being materials produced by living organisms: wood, bone, cloth, food, medicines, and the complex substances that configure the human body. Inorganic material was believed to come from the Earth: salt, metals, and rock, just to name a few. Because of the human’s wonder of natural life, organic materials were believed to possess an enigmatic â€Å"Vital Force.† Thus organic chemistry was separated from inorganic chemistry, and it became it’s own field of science. By the turn of the Nineteenth the â€Å"Vital Force† theory was immensely discredited, but this branch of science still stayed separated from inorganic chemistry. Back when Organic chemistry was the chemistry of living matter, Professor Wohler succeeded in synthesizing in the labo†¦ The name organic chemistry came from the word organism. Prior to 1828, all organic compounds had been obtained from organisms or their remains. The scientific philosophy back then was that the synthesis of organic compounds could only be produced within living matter while inorganic compounds were synthesized from non-living matter. A theory known as â€Å"Vitalism† stated that a â€Å"vital force† from living organisms was necessary to make an organic compound. 1828, a German chemist Friedrich Wà ¶hler (1800-1882) amazed the science community by using the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate, NH4OCN to synthesize urea, H2NCONH2, an organic substance found in the urine of many animals. This led to the disappearance of the â€Å"Vitalism† theory. Today, chemists consider organic compounds to be those containing carbon and  one or more other elements, most often hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or the halogens, but sometimes others as well. Organic chemistry is defined as the chemistry of carbon and its compounds. Organic chemistry is also known under the short-term organic. The organic chemistry as a branch of chemistry can be viewed and engaged in the carbon content. Particularly the structure, composition and the chemical reactions of carbon will be investigated. To the organic chemistry include the elements that go with the carbon compounds. Therefore we understand today as the organic chemistry, the chemistry of carbon compounds, and not focusing only on the compounds from nature. The organic chemistry is, however, also limits for inorganic chemistry. This limit is usually denied to the concept of hydrocyanic acid. The division of natural science in organic chemistry and inorganic chemistry is historical. The term â€Å"organic† was first used by Berzilius about 1810 because by then all investigated compounds derived from living organisms and in the laboratory could not be synthesized. Berzilius found it impossible to produce organic compounds from nature artificial. This theory was refuted, however, then in 1828 by the chemist Friedrich Wohler. In later times it was always more to produce organic substances synthetically, which contained all the carbon. The simplest organic compounds consist only of the elements of water and carbon. Only compounds such as carbon oxides, carbonates, carbides and cyanides are expected to inorganic compounds. Before the nineteenth century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter was endowed with a â€Å"vital force†.[8] During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis. He separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats  (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without â€Å"vital force†. In 1828 Friedrich Wà ¶hler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from the inorganic ammonium cyanate NH4CNO, in what i s now called the Wà ¶hler synthesis. Although Wà ¶hler was always cautious about claiming that he had disproved the theory of vital force, this event has often been thought of as a turning point.[8] In 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine, accidentally manufactured the organic dye now known as Perkin’s mauve. Through its great financial success, this discovery greatly increased interest in organic chemistry.[9] The crucial breakthrough for organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently and simultaneously by Friedrich August Kekulà © and Archibald Scott Couper in 1858.[10] Both men suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions. The pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when the manufacturing of acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly referred to as aspirin) in Germany was started by Bayer.[11] The first time a drug was systematically improved was with arsphenamine (Salvarsan). Though numerous derivatives of the dangerous toxic atoxyl were examined by Paul Ehrlich and his group, the compound with best effectiveness and toxicity characteristics was selected for production.[citation needed] Early examples of organic reactions and applications were often serendipitous. The latter half of the 19th century however witnessed systematic studies of organic compounds, Illustrative is the development of synthetic indigo. The production of indigo from plant sources dropped from 19,000 tons in 1897 to 1,000 tons by 1914 thanks to the synthetic methods developed by Adolf von Baeyer. In 2002, 17,000 tons of synthetic indigo were produced from petrochemicals.[12] In the early part of the 20th Century, polymers and enzymes were shown to be large organic molecules, and petroleum was shown to be of biological origin. The multistep synthesis of complex organic compounds is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol. For example, cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesize complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increased to include molecules of high complexity such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12.[13] The total synthesis of vitamin B12 marked a major achievement in organic chemistry. The development of organic chemistry benefited from the discovery of petroleum and the development of the petrochemical industry. The conversion of individual compounds obtained from petroleum into different compound types by various chemical processes led to the birth of the petrochemical industry, which successfully manufactured artificial rubbers, various organic adhesives, property-modifying petroleum additives, and plastics. The majority of chemical compounds occurring in biological organisms are in fact carbon compounds, so the association between organic chemistry and biochemistry is so close that biochemistry might be regarded as in essence a branch of organic chemistry. Although the history of biochemistry might be taken to span some four centuries, fundamental understanding of the field only began to develop in the late 19th century and the actual term biochemistry was coined around the start of 20th century. Research in the field increased throughout the twentieth century, without any indication of slackening in the rate of increase, as may be verified by inspection of abstraction and indexing services such as BIOSIS Previews and Biological Abstracts, which began in the 1920s as a single annual volume, but has grown so drastically that by the end of the 20th century it was only available to the everyday user as an online electronic database.[14] The Importance of Chemistry in Everyday Life During laboratory technique 1 we learned how to separate insoluble liquids from solids by means of filtration, and how to separate a dissolved solid from a liquid by means of evaporation. I have often asked myself the importance of some of the required classes in my schedule and how they can relate to everyday life. I believe in the saying that if you don’t use it you will lose it, meaning that if the concepts I learn cannot be applied to something that I will remember on a daily basis then the possibilities of me not remembering them at all are greater. This is especially true if you’re not a science or medical major as I am not. However in this class I am discovering that things we are learning can definitely be applied to processes that my mind uses daily and procedures that are performed daily and are as close to me as my own kitchen. In pondering the idea of filtration and evaporation I begin to think of the water that I drink on a daily basis. Without even being aware of the process I have been using filtration on a daily basis. I purchased a filter for my sink a number of years ago to improve the taste of my water and get rid of what I called the (bad things) that my body didn’t need. At the time I had no idea I was making a scientific decision and using a scientific method. I had determined that the water in my house did not taste well and that the taste could be improved. Listening to others who had boasted about the success of filtered water I decided to test their hypothesis out for myself. I bought from the local hardware store a basic water filter system that could be attached to the faucet of your sink. Supposedly this water filter would remove the harmful substances from my water and improve the taste. I tested the hypothesis by first pouring myself a glass of unfiltered water and sitting it aside. I then attached my filter system and poured myself a glass of filtered water. I tasted both and observed the differences in each taste. The hypothesis was now justified in my eyes, the filtered water tasted better. I offered my hypothesis to my husband and children and allowed them to make their own observations. We all agreed that the filtered water tested better. The hypothesis had now become theory in my household. Now since this class I’ve been observing just how this filter system works. I have discovered that the residue that remains after filtering in some way affected the taste of my regular tap water. I have since learned that this residue consists of salt and other stuff that could definitely dramatically affect the test. Interestingly enough though, this filtration process didn’t start with me. Scientist years ago began to filter water for health reasons. Elements that are deadly to our human bodies (such as chloride) are filtered out daily through our elaborate water system to ensure that our water is healthy to drink. Without this process we would have entire cities dying just like the colony of Jamestown centuries ago! Wow I guess science is a necessary in my daily life, I just never knew that’s what it was called.

Identification of Team background and Evaluation of its performance Assignment

Identification of Team background and Evaluation of its performance - Assignment Example This research will begin with the statement that the team to be evaluated is a professional team that appointed to ensure the prolongation of a certain audit firm, P&H, by choosing the best alternative among the many options that do not lead to an adverse effect in terms of operations. P&H boasts of a strong team of auditors that have played a big role in its success. The firm is composed of ten members with higher qualifications and credentials in different various fields of finance and management. P&H team is a traditional team that has been committed to ensuring that the firm delivers high-quality work to her clients and employs competent audit assistance and other audit technicians. The team that includes different heads of departments sharing similar goals of the firm believes that performance of every member is crucial for P&H success. Many differences that were initially experienced in the team have been resolved and different departmental heads appreciate their colleaguesâ₠¬â„¢ contribution. Team members understand each other and interact with humor, a concept that helps them provide a solution and constructive feedback. Team members are committed to the team goal thus producing great results. Team members engage in the collective and democratic decision-making process through consulting group members hence promoting workers ownership for the decisions without the team leader losing sight of the fact that he bears all the crucial responsibility of leadership.

Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Research Proposal Example The aim of this research study is to determine the various challenges faced by women as they climb the corporate ladder. Leadership is the process through which an individual influences the actions of others to achieve the defined goals and directs the personnel, to make organization more coherent and cohesive (L Models ). There was a time when most of the top management positions were given to the male employees because of the supposedly high influence of male. However, the women’s role as leaders in the workplaces is significantly increasing. Increasing number of women is taking the leadership roles that were previously occupied by men therefore, different leadership style of men and women are attracting the attention of researchers (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). A considerable literature work has been done to study the difference between male and female leadership styles. Most of the research studies support that men usually have more authoritative and assertive leadership style as compared to women. Eagly has analyzed that men and women show nine leadership behaviors with different fre quencies. Women apply more people development, expectations and rewards and role model whereas, men apply more individualistic decision making and control and corrective actions. Moreover, men and women equally apply intellectual stimulation and efficient communication whereas; women are slightly more than man in inspiration and participative decision making (Desvaux & Devillard, 2008). Khankhoje et al highlighted the importance of women leadership role from scientific perspective. In 48 countries, women have occupied highest political offices for example, Prime Minister, President and almost 60 percent increase has been seen in the last decade and a half (Khankhoje, Kb, & Kumar). Moreover, they also stated that male brains is 10% larger than female brains however, women have more nerve

How do you provide Leadership when you are not a manager, supervisor, Essay

How do you provide Leadership when you are not a manager, supervisor, or a decision-maker - Essay Example There are two ways through which one can lead others first is the position or the office at which a particular person is held and second is the influencing qualities that are present in a specific person. These are the qualities that persuade others to follow that person regardless of the fact that the position at which he is held is not that significant. There are different ways in which one can perform leadership activities without being a manager or a decision maker. First way is that he can provoke others to follow him if he has a strong personality, a knack to deal with difficult situations swiftly, a systematic way to perform different tasks efficiently and other various qualities that are essential for surviving in the competitive world of business. Such qualities help a person to stand out of all the odds and to accomplish different complicated tasks without much difficulty.

Using foreign financial statements Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Using foreign financial statements - Article Example The article is about a very important field in contemporary financial world,the skills' requirements to read financial statements of foreign companies and extracting information of interest from these financialsThe article presents some techniques that organizations usually employ when their financial statements are provided to foreign users. This ranges from doing nothing (in which case the financial statements might be in non-English language with figures shown in local currency and might not follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles - GAAP, or International Financial Reporting Standards - IFRS) to a completely new set of statements, explicitly prepared for United States. Known as secondary statements, these are developed to provide statements in United States English, with the use of either US GAAP or international standards on Accounting. The purpose is to give users a similar sort of statement that they are used to deal with in United States.The article moves on to identif y the differences in financial statements' presentation layout and style that might appear in financial statements of a foreign company based on its particular location, usage of accounting standards, and norms in the country. A CPA or financial analyst must be equipped with relevant skills and necessary expertise to be able to deal with these differences in the financial statements presentations.... The article, too, describes the importance of being able to read and understand the financial statements of a foreign firm. Similarly, as per CON 2, the information that should be provided in financial statements should have a comparability aspect; that is, it could be compared with information from other entities to make an informed decision. As noted in the article, one of the purposes of developing a secondary statement is to enable the readers to compare statements of one company in one country with statements of others that might be in some other countries. If the currency, form and presentation, and standards of which the financial statements are developed are similar, it will provide an ease in comparing apple to apple. Otherwise, one might end up comparing US Dollars with Japanese Yen. Similarly, other elements of the coursework like financial accounting environment, financial statements like balance sheet and income statements and their forms, and the reporting standards are discussed in the article with a perspective of foreign financial statements and international reporting. 3. Learning Lessons The article provides common approaches the companies take when they provide their financial statements to foreign users. These approaches include doing nothing (explained above), developing primary statements using United States GAAP, translating the financial statements into English for easy reading, some might also change the currency to US dollars to provide the ease of comparability that might be required (convenience statements), others might include the details of this conversion and show the rate at which currency is converted (limited restatement). In addition, companies might completely redo their statements to align these

Short Biology Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Short Biology Questions - Assignment Example Studies also contend that, heavy asteroid stones broke dinosaurs’ backs besides other animals rendering them lame and unable to survive. Presently, palaeontologists refer to this collision as Asteroid Theory owing to its significant impact that yielded to an immense destruction of both the animal and plant life. This contributed to the evolution of other competitive life forms that could cope effectively with the altered environment, hence Charles Darwin’s argument â€Å"struggle for survival†. Scientists contended that the rampant volcanic eruptions evidenced 65 Million years ago prompted to the extinction of plant and animal life. Primarily, this was evident in Mexican and Indian regions where the lava produced covered numerous plants prior leading its way into the sea to destroy dinosaurs’ inhabitance (Benton 64). In addition, volcanic eruptions deposited obnoxious gasses into the atmosphere where thick dust hindered sunlight from reaching the planet’s surface for photosynthesis purposes. This action deprived other life forms especially the animals their necessary food, which led to their mass demise and evolution of other animals that could endure the then harsh conditions. The body cavities’ evolution bears an intriguing history in the kingdom of animalia due to constant altering surroundings where the animals had to adapt effectively to survive. Acoelomates phyla possess a secondary body cavity but it is comprised of either circulatory or digestive functions. In some instances, these phyla possess body civilities comprising both the digestive and circulatory functions instead of bearing a single type (Benton 64). Pseudocoelomates have developed body cavities but their characteristics are far from the true secondary cavity or coelom. Mainly, Worm-like life forms usually characterize these phyla. Eucoelomates mainly bear true coelom owing to

The History of Slavery in Virginia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The History of Slavery in Virginia - Essay Example During the initial days, the black people were treated as slaves. They performed their duties just as normal citizens. Others even had properties to their names. A good number of them resided on plantations. It is during the 1660’s after the laws regarding slavery for the blacks were enacted that the situation for the blacks in Virginia turned to a new phases (Journal of the House of Delegates 15). Slave trade in Virginia went on for about 200 years, until around 1808 where the activity faced a ban in accordance to the constitution of the US in Article I, Section 9. Although the issue of slavery was put to an end according to the court’s decision, the government was in support of slavery (Journal of the House of Delegates 27). Tobacco was Virginia’s chief agricultural product, and it was a success for the state. Virginia saw the ban of slaves as an opportunity for the state since they had slaves in excess because of their fast rate of reproduction. They knew they could make money out of the ban. This is so because the shortage in supply would result to an increase in demand for the slaves, and so Virginia would sell them to the southern states at an increased price. However, there were several attempts by the slaves to rebel against their masters. In each attempt of rebellion made by the slaves, the government would immediately enforce the laws to become more severe as a way of punishing them and preventing them from assembling. It was through that activity that the government of Virginia would ensure to reduce the threat of having the slaves rebelling against them (Morgan 35). It was during 1831 that Nat Turner facilitated a successful slave rebellion. This was by far the biggest rebellion ever experienced in the history of United States. The rebellion was motivated by the success of the revolution that was experienced in Haiti in 1790 that saw the French Rule being overthrown. Turner was inspired by the Haitian achievement and

Research paper on Libya Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

On Libya - Research Paper Example The second event which marked the Italian colonialization of Turkey was the development of the Fourth Shore. Mussolini wanted to turn Libya into an Italian province and hence renamed it, Italy’s Fourth Shore. Remaking Libya began with dividing it into four provinces and investing heavily into its transportation infrastructure, irrigation technology and raw material extraction industry. It finally ended with the creation of the Libyan Colonization Society which promoted land reclamation and job creation for Italian settlers. As World War II began, and Italy pledged its allegiance to Germany, Cyrenaican and Tripolitanian leaders announced their support to the Allies led by Sayid Idris. After a tough war, Libya came under the Allied administration, in February 1943, which lasted till 24th December 1951, when Libya became the first country to attain autonomy through the United Nations. Headed by King Idris I, United Kingdom of Libya proclaimed its sovereignty as a constitutional a nd hereditary monarchy. Present Leader: The present president of Libya is Mohammed el-Megarif, who is also the chairman of the General National Congress. Current Political Context: 10 months after overthrowing Muammar Gaddafi’s dictatorial rule, Libya elected its new democratic government in August 2012, which was to be led by Mohammed el-Megarif. While Mohammed el-Megarif represented the National Front Party, in the elections, his opponent Ali Zaidan, was an independent candidate. Both candidates had a lush history of opposing the tyrannical Gaddafi and had been living in exile till his recent death. For the people of Libya who had been wearily waiting for the chaos and turmoil to end, this has come as a cry of relief. For many people, the election process itself has been a liberating experience, having served under a dictatorial leader for so long. The democratically elected government is backed by people’s faith in them and hosts a competent cabinet. Youth who forme d a majority of the voting population, were happy with the election results as they believed that the National Forces Alliance would be able to bring about policy changes in the functioning of Libya. The election results also spoke a great deal about the acceptance of religious ideologies among the general public. The chaos tired citizens chose to stay away from any candidate gunning a religious propaganda and the results promoted a fair and free government. Nonetheless, the government seeks to establish itself in the midst of the ongoing turmoil and in the attempt to ascertain peace and stability; it has to earn people’s respect by providing them security both physical and material, at the same time bring together opposing forces of the militia to build a stronger base. Economics & Art/Culture Sub-Heading: Libya – Holder of largest oil reserves in Africa Currency: Libyan Dinar (LYD) Major Economic Features: Libya holds Africa’s largest oil reserves and hence, i ts major products are crude oil, natural gas and refined petroleum products. The country revolves around its energy sector because poor soil and unsuitable climatic conditions limit the output that is gained from agriculture. According to CIA’s World Factbook, â€Å"95% of export earnings, 80% of GDP, and 99% of government revenue†

Clarkson Lumber Company Pro Forma Statement Essay Example for Free

Clarkson Lumber Company Pro Forma Statement Essay Assumptions. We build pro-forma statement mostly based on the assumptions given in the case. Other assumptions are following. At first, we assume that the tax rate is an average of tax rates for the past three years which is 20. 1%. We use this tax rate to calculate the provision for income taxes for following years. Next assumption is that we take Mr. Dadges approximation for the initial rate as the interest rate, 11%. Since Mr. Clarkson finished payment to Mr. Holtz in 1995, we assume that only the bank loan to Suburban National Bank and Northrup National Bank are the interest-bearing liabilities for 1996 through 1999. For account payable period, we calculated two numbers, 53. 62 days for 1995 and 54. 86 for the first quarter of 1996. We used the payable period for 1995 to calculate the accounts payables for the forecasted years because, as mentioned in the case, Mr. Clarksons business has some seasonality so hat the payable period for the only first quarter of 1996 would not fully reflect for a whole year. We decided not to include 2% discounts for early payment to the suppliers on our income statement because of the payable period. We also assume that Mr. Clarkson issued no new equities and paid no dividends during the forecasted years. Only source of the change in the net worth is the net income for the same period. New credit line. The new credit line of $750,000 would be sufficient only for 1996 and 1997. The bank loan would exceed the credit line to 858,000 and 1,109,000 for 1998 and 1999, according to our pro forma statement. Without the approval of the bank, Mr. Clarkson would not be able to expand his business at the current growth rate after 1998. With the assumption of sales growth rate of 25%, the external financing required has become double from $493,000 in 1996 to $1,109,000 in 1999. Since the new credit line is fixed at $750,000, Mr. Clarkson would have to find other ways of financing the operation such as issuing new equity.

Rural Development In India Construction Essay

Rural Development In India Construction Essay India is a country of villages and about 50% of the villages have very poor socio-economic conditions. Since the dawn of independence, concerted efforts have been made to ameliorate the living standard of rural masses. So, rural development is an integrated concept of growth and poverty elimination has been of paramount concern in all the consequent five year plans. Rural Development (RD) programmes comprise of following: Provision of basic infrastructure facilities in the rural areas e.g. schools, health facilities, roads, drinking water, electrification etc. Improving agricultural productivity in the rural areas. Provision of social services like health and education for socio-economic development. Implementing schemes for the promotion of rural industry increasing agriculture productivity, providing rural employment etc. Assistance to individual families and Self Help Groups (SHG) living below poverty line by providing productive resources through credit and subsidy. Rural employment schemes National Rural Employment Guarantee Act Implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development External website that opens in a new window, National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) External website that opens in a new window is the flagship programme of the Government that directly touches lives of the poor and promotes inclusive growth. The Act aims at enhancing livelihood security of households in rural areas of the country by providing at least one hundred days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojna The Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY) was launched on 25 September, 2001 by merging the on-going schemes of EAS and the JGSY with the objective of providing additional wage employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas. The programme is self-targeting in nature with provisions for special emphasis on women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and parents of children withdrawn from hazardous occupations. While preference is given to BPL families for providing wage employment under SGRY, poor families above the poverty line can also be offered employment whenever NREGA has been launched. The Gram Panchayats can take up any work with the approval of the gram sabha as per their felt need and within available funds. Fifty per cent of the funds earmarked for the gram panchayats are to be utilised for infrastructure development works in SC/ST localities. 22.5 per cent resources must be spent on individual beneficiary schemes meant for SCs/STs out of the resource share of District Panchayat and Intermediate Panchayats. Contractors are not permitted to be engaged for execution of any of the works and no middlemen/intermediate agencies can be engaged for executing works under the scheme. The programme is regularly monitored. The programme is being evaluated through impact studies conducted by reputed institutions and organisations sponsored by the Central/State governments. National Food for Work Programme The National Food for Work ProgrammeHYPERLINK http://india.gov.in/outerwin.php?id=http://rural.nic.in/nffwpguidelines.htm was launched in November, 2004 in 150 most backward districts of the country, identified by the Planning Commission in consultation with the Ministry of Rural Development and the State governments. The objective of the programme was to provide additional resources apart from the resources available under the (SGRY)HYPERLINK http://india.gov.in/outerwin.php?id=http://rural.nic.in/book01-02/ch-2.pdf to 150 most backward districts of the country so that generation of supplementary wage employment and providing of food-security through creation of need based economic, social and community assets in these districts are further intensified. The scheme was 100 per cent centrally sponsored. The programme has since been subsumed in National Rural Employment Guarantee Act which has come in force in 200 identified districts of the country including 150 NFFWP districts. The Act provides 100 days of work guarantee to every rural household whose members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. Rural infrastructure development Bharat Nirman Bharat Nirman is a time-bound business plan for action in rural infrastructure. Under Bharat Nirman, action is proposed in the areas of irrigation, rural housing, rural water supply, rural electrification and rural telecommunication connectivity. Rural Roads To upgrade rural infrastructure, the Government has formulated a proposal for providing the road connections to more than 38,484 villages above 1000 population and all 20,867 habitations above 500 populations in hilly and tribal areas. To achieve the targets of Bharat Nirman, 1,46,185 kms. of road length is proposed to be constructed by 2009. This will benefit 66,802 unconnected eligible habitations in the country. To ensure full farm to market connectivity, it is also proposed to upgrade 1,94,132 kms. of the existing Associated Through Routes. A sum of approximately Rs. 48,000 crore is proposed to be invested to achieve this. The main thrust of research and development (RD) in the roads sector is to build a sustainable road infrastructure comparable to the best roads in the world. The various components of this strategy are improvement in design, modernization of construction techniques, introduction of improved material conforming to latest trends, evolving better and appropriate specifications, encouraging development and use of new technologies etc. The dissemination of these matters is done through the publication of new guidelines, code of practices, instructions/circulars, compilation of state-of-the-art reports and seminars/presentations etc. The research schemes sponsored by the Department are generally applied in nature, which, once completed, would enable them to be adopted by user agencies/departments in their work in the field. The areas covered are roads, road transport, bridges, traffic and transportation techniques etc. The Department takes the help of various research institutions, academi c institutions and universities to implement the schemes. An outlay of Rs 600.00 lakhs has been provided for RD in 2007-08. Some of the ongoing major schemes are as follows: Roads: Development of GIS based National Highways information system; Guidelines for soil nailing techniques in highway engineering; Pilot study on effect of overloading on road infrastructure; Investigation on field performance of bituminous mixes with modified binders; Bridges: Creation of complete range of independent testing facility at Central Road Research Institute (CRRI ), New Delhi. Rural Housing Housing is one of basic requirements for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about a profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu. The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) with a view to providing financial assistance to the rural poor living below poverty line for construction of pucca house. The details of the scheme along with its performance are given below: Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to provide financial assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty line (BPL) rural households belonging to the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers categories. From the year 1993-94, the scope of the scheme was extended to cover non-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes rural BPL poor, subject to the condition that the benefits to non-SC/ST would not be more than 40% of the total IAY allocation. The benefits of the Scheme have also been extended to the families of ex-servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in action, 3% of the Houses are reserved for the rural Below Poverty Line physically and mentally challenged persons, from 2006-07 onward, funds and physical targets under IAY are also being earmarked for BPL minorities in each state. Under the scheme, financial resources are shared between the centre and the states on a 75:25 basis. Since, reduction of shelterlessness is the primary objective, 75% weightage is given to housing shortage and 25% to the poverty ratios prescribed by Planning Commission for state level allocation. For district level allocation, 75% weightage is given again to housing shortage and 25% to SC/ST population of the concerned districts. On the basis of allocations made and targets fixed, district Rural development Agency (DRDAs)/Zilla Parishada (ZPs) decide Panchayat-wise number of houses to be constructed under IAY and intimate the same to the concerned Gram Panchayat. Thereafter, the Gram Sabha selects the beneficiaries, restricting its number to the target allotted, from the list of eligible households from the Permanent IAY Waitlists. No further approval of the higher authority is required. The ceiling on construction assistance under the IAY has been enhanced w.e.f. 1.4.2008, Rs. 25, 000/- to Rs. 35,000/- per unit in the plain areas and from Rs. 27,500/- to Rs. 38,500/- in hilly/difficult areas. For upgradation of kutcha house, the financial assistance has also been enhanced from Rs. 12,500/- to Rs. 15,000/- per unit. In addition, The Reserve Bank of India has been requested by the Ministry of Finance to include IAY houses under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI) scheme for lending upto Rs. 20,000 per unit at an interest rate of 4%. Further, the dwelling units should invariably be allotted in the name of a female member of the beneficiary household. Alternatively, it can be allotted in the name of both husband and wife. Only in case there is no eligible female member in the family, the house can be allotted in the name of an eligible male member. The Sanitary latrine and smokeless chullah and proper drainage are required for each IAY house. Latrine could be constructed separate for the IAY house on the site of beneficiary. The construction of the houses is the sole responsibility of the beneficiary. Engagement of contractors is strictly prohibited. No specific type design has been stipulated for an IAY house. Choice of design, technology and materials for construction of an IAY house is the sole discretion of the beneficiaries. About 181.51 lakh houses have been constructed under IAY since inception of the Scheme with an expenditure of Rs. 36900.41 crores (upto 31/5/2008). Performance during the year 2007-08 During 2007-08, the Central allocation for Rural Houseing was Rs. 40,322.70 crore. The target for construction/upgradation of IAY houses was 21.27 lakh. Against this target, 19.88 lakh houses were constructed/upgraded by incurring an amount of Rs. 5,458.01 crores (including State share). Performance during the year 2008-09 The Central allocation for 2008-09 under the IAY is Rs. 5,645.77 crore for the target of constructing/upgrading 21.27 lakh IAY houses. Out of this, an amount of Rs. 1,694.48 crore has been released as part of first instalment and 85,879 houses have been constructed so far, (upto 31/5/2008). Irrigation Under the Irrigation Component of Bharat Nirman, the target of creation of additional irrigation potential of 1 crore hectare in 4 years (2005-06 to 2008-09) is planned to be met largely through expeditious completion of identified ongoing major and medium irrigation projects. Irrigation potential of 42 lakh hectare is planned to be created by expeditiously completing such ongoing major and medium projects. There is a definite gap between irrigation potential created and the potential utilized. Under Bharat Nirman it is planned to restore and utilize irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare through implementation of extension, renovation and modernization of schemes alongwith command area development and water management practices. There are considerable areas in the country with unutilised ground water resources. Irrigation potential of 28 lakh hectare is planned to be created through ground water development. The remaining target for creation of irrigation potential of 10 lakh hectare is planned to be created by way of minor irrigation schemes using surface flow. 10 lakh hectare of irrigation potential is also planned by way of repair, renovation and restoration of water bodies and extension, renovation and modernization of minor irrigation schemes. Telephone Connections Telecom connectivity constitutes an important part of the effort to upgrade the rural infrastructure. Under the Bharat Nirman Programme, it will be ensured that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with a Village Public Telephone (VPT), shall be covered. Out of the above villages, connectivity in 14,183 remote and far flung villages will be provided through digital satellite phone terminals. Assistance for both capital as well as operational expenditure for these VPTs will be met out of the Universal Services Obligation Fund (USOF). Rural Water Supply To build rural infrastructure, Bharat Nirman has been launched by the Government of India in 2005 to be implemented in a period of four years from 2005-06 to 2008-09. Rural drinking water is one of the six components of Bharat Nirman. During Bharat Nirman period, 55,067 un-covered and about 3.31 lakh slipped-back habitations are to be covered with provisions of drinking water facilities and 2.17 lakh quality-affected habitations are to be addressed for water quality problem. While prioritising the addressal of the water quality problem, Arsenic and Fluoride affected habitations have been accorded priority followed by Iron, Salinity, Nitrate and other contaminants. To ensure that habitations once provided with drinking water supply infrastructure do not slip back and face drinking water problem, sustainability of drinking water sources and systems has been accorded high priority. To achieve drinking water security at village/ habitation level, conjunctive use of water i.e. judicious use of rainwater, surface water and ground water is promoted. To enable the rural community shoulder the responsibility in management, operation and maintenance of water supply systems at village level, decentralized, demand-driven, community-managed approach in the form of Swajaldhara have been adopted. To further strengthen community participation in the drinking water sector for sustainability, National Rural Drinking Water Quality Monitoring Surveillance programme has been launched in February, 2006 under which 5 persons in each Gram Panchayat are to be trained to carry out regular surveillance of drinking water sources for which 100% financial assistance including water testing kits, are provided. Rural Electrification Ministry of Power has introduced the scheme Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidhyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) in April 2005, which aims at providing electricity in all villages and habitations in four years and provides access to electricity to all rural households. This programme has been brought under the ambit of Bharat Nirman. Under RGGVY, electricity distribution infrastructure is envisaged to establish Rural Electricity Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least a 33/11KV sub-station, Village Electrification Infrastructure (VEI) with at least a Distribution Transformer in a village or hamlet, and standalone grids with generation where grid supply is not feasible. This infrastructure would cater to the requirements of agriculture and other activities in rural areas including irrigation pump sets, small and medium industries, khadi and village industries, cold chains, healthcare and education and IT. This would facilitate overall rural development, employment generation and poverty alleviation. Subsidy towards capital expenditure to the tune of 90% will be provided, through Rural Electrification Corporation Limited (REC), which is a nodal agency for implementation of the scheme. Electrification of un-electrified Below Poverty Line (BPL) households will be financed with 100% capital subsidy @ Rs.1500/- per connection in all rural habitations. The Management of Rural Distribution is mandated through franchisees. The services of Central Public Sector Undertakings (CPSU) are available to the States for assisting them in the execution of Rural Electrification projects. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) External website that opens in a new window was launched on 25 December 2000 as a fully funded Centrally Sponsored Scheme. The primary objective of the PMGSY is to provide connectivity to all the eligible unconnected habitations of more than 500 persons in the rural areas (250 persons in the hilly and desert areas) by good quality all-weather roads. Under Bharat Nirman, goal has been set to provide connectivity to all the habitations with population of more than 1000 in the plain areas and habitations with a population of 500 or more in hilly and tribal areas in a time-bound manner by 2009. The systematic upgradation of the existing rural road networks is also an integral component of the scheme. Accordingly, an Action Plan has been prepared for connecting 66,802 habitations with 1,46,185 km of all-weather roads. This Action Plan also envisages upgradation/renewal of 1,94,130 km of the existing rural road network. Subsequently, based on ground verification by States, 62,985 habitations were found eligible to be connected under the programme, out of which 3421 habitations have been connected under other schemes. Thus, the revised target is to connect 59,564 habitations. It is estimated that an investment of about Rs.48,000 crore would be required for achieving the targets under Bharat Nirman. The implementation strategy focuses o n quality, cost management and on time delivery. Up to July, 2008, project proposals amounting to Rs. 81,717 crore have been approved against which a sum of Rs. 38,499 crore has been released for 86,146 roads covering a length of 3,31,736 km. Against these, 52,218 road works having road length of 1,75629 km have been completed with a cumulative expenditure of Rs. 35,295 crore. Rural Housing Housing is one of basic requirements for human survival. For a shelterless person, possession of a house brings about a profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu. The Ministry of Rural Development is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) with a view to providing financial assistance to the rural poor living below poverty line for construction of pucca house. The details of the scheme along with its performance are given below: Indira Awaas Yojna (IAY) The Government of India is implementing Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) since the year 1985-86 to provide financial assistance for construction / upgradation of dwelling units to the below poverty line (BPL) rural households belonging to the scheduled castes, scheduled Tribes and freed bonded labourers categories. From the year 1993-94, the scope of the scheme was extended to cover non-Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes rural BPL poor, subject to the condition that the benefits to non-SC/ST would not be more than 40% of the total IAY allocation. The benefits of the Scheme have also been extended to the families of ex-servicemen of the armed and paramilitary forces killed in action, 3% of the Houses are reserved for the rural Below Poverty Line physically and mentally challenged persons, From 2006-07 onward, funds and physical targets under IAY are also being earmarked for BPL minorities in each state. Under the scheme, financial resources are shared between the centre and the states on a 75 : 25 basis. Since, reduction of shelterlessness is the primary objective, 75% weightage is given to housing shortage and 25% to the poverty ratios prescribed by Planning Commission for state level allocation. For district level allocation, 75% weightage is given again to housing shortage and 25% to SC/ST population of the concerned districts. On the basis of allocations made and targets fixed, district Rural development Agency (DRDAs)/Zilla Parishada (ZPs) decide Panchayat-wise number of houses to be constructed under IAY and intimate the same to the concerned Gram Panchayat. Thereafter, the Gram Sabha selects the beneficiaries, restricting its number to the target allotted, from the list of eligible households from the Permanent IAY Waitlists. No further approval of the higher authority is required. The ceiling on construction assistance under the IAY has been enhanced w.e.f. 1.4.2008, Rs. 25, 000/- to Rs. 35,000/- per unit in the plain areas and from Rs. 27,500/ to Rs. 38,500/- in hilly/difficult areas. For upgradation of kutcha house, the financial assistance has also been enhanced from Rs. 12,500/- to Rs. 15,000/- per unit. In addition, The Reserve Bank of India has been requested by the Ministry of Finance to include IAY houses under the Differential Rate of Interest (DRI) scheme for lending upto Rs. 20,000 per unit at an interest rate of 4%. Further, the dwelling units should invariably be allotted in the name of a female member of the beneficiary household. Alternatively, it can be allotted in the name of both husband and wife. Only in case there is no eligible female member in the family, the house can be allotted in the name of an eligible male member. The Sanitary latrine and smokeless chullah and proper drainage are required for each IAY house. Latrine could be constructed separate for the IAY house on the site of beneficiary. The construction of the houses is the sole responsibility of the beneficiary. Engagement of contractors is strictly prohibited. No specific type design has been stipulated for an IAY house. Choice of design, technology and materials for construction of an IAY house is the sole discretion of the beneficiaries. About 181.51 lakh houses have been constructed under IAY since inception of the Scheme with an expenditure of Rs. 36900.41 crores (upto 31/5/2008) Performance during the year 2007-08 During 2007-08, the Central allocation for Rural Housing was Rs. 40322.70 crore. The target for construction/upgradation of IAY houses was 21.27 lakh. Against this target, 19.88 lakh houses were constructed/upgraded by incurring an amount of Rs. 5458.01 crores (including State share). Performance during the year 2008-09 The Central allocation for 2008-09 under the IAY is Rs. 56.45.77 crore for the target of constructing/upgrading 21.27 lakh IAY houses. Out of this, an amount of Rs. 1694.48 crore has been released as part of first installment and 85879 houses have been constructed so far, (upto 31/5/2008). Source: National Portal Content Management Team, Reviewed on:05-05-2010 Eleventh plan (2007-2012) The eleventh plan has the following objectives: Income Poverty Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17 Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread of benefits Create 70 million new work opportunities. Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%. Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent. Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points. Education Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by 2011-12 Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and by regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85% Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present 10% to 15% by the end of the plan Health Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1 Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip-backs Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level Reduce anaemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the plan women and Children Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17 Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all government schemes are women and girl children Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work Infrastructure Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and round-the-clock power. Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all significant habitation by 2015 Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband connectivity to all villages by 2012 Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction for rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17 Environment Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points. Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12. Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters. Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.

Stereotypes and Stereotyping of Characters of The Great Gatsby Essay

The Stereotypical Characters of The Great Gatsby      Ã‚  Ã‚   F. Scott Fitzgerald is well known for being an excellent writer, for expertly describing the Jazz Age, and for having a drinking problem.   However, he is not so well known for creating deep and intriguing characters.   In The Great Gatsby, the majority of the characters remain one-dimensional and unchanging throughout the novel.   They are simply known from the viewpoint of Nick Carraway, the participating narrator.   Some insight is given into characters in the form of their dialogue with Nick, however, they never really become deep characters that are 'known' and can be identified with.   While all of the participants in the novel aren't completely flat, most of the main characters are simply stereotypes of 1920's people from the southern, western, and eastern parts of America.    "Proper Southern Belles 1. Never blow their noses in public, 2.   Never chase after a man- they connive a man into chasing them, 3. Always get what they want, 4. Are extraordinary hostesses, 5.   Always look their best, 6.   Are always a bit mysterious, and 7.   Are witty and charming." (Suney)   In short, a typical Southern Belle is lovely, well mannered, and above all, wealthy. Daisy Buchanan is lovely, well mannered, and above all, wealthy.   She was known as the most beautiful girl in Louisville, and her family was very rich.   Daisy, being the most popular girl amongst the soldiers, could pick any man she liked to 'connive' into chasing her.   When Jay Gatsby came around, she fell in love with his lie of being rich and from a good family.   But after he went away to war, she became impatient and couldn't wait for the man she thought she loved.   When she met Rich Easterner Jock, Tom, she marrie... ...nts of conversation with Nick, the characters remain on the levels of small talk and public knowledge.   The only insight given to their lives is that they can easily be defined by a stereotype.   Daisy is the Southern Belle/Easterner: rich, proper, and reckless.   Gatsby is a Western Pioneer: continuously working toward his dreams.   Tom is the Rich Easterner Jock: large, hypocritical, and ignorant.   Fitzgerald used these common 1920's stereotypes to create the one-dimensional characters in this very multi-dimensional story, The Great Gatsby.    Works Cited and Consulted F. Scott Fitzgerald.   The Great Gatsby.   New York: Scribner Paperback Fiction, 1925. F. Scott Fitzgerald. (1934) Columbia Quotations. [Online]. Available: www.Bartleby.com. Suney. (1999) Proper Southern Belles. Personal Website. [Online].   Available: www.dbteck.net/~suncastl/lady.

Talking Back to Civilization Essay -- Frederick E. Hoxie American Indi

Talking Back to Civilization Talking Back to Civilization , edited by Frederick E. Hoxie, is a compilation of excerpts from speeches, articles, and texts written by various American Indian authors and scholars from the 1890s to the 1920s. As a whole, the pieces provide a rough testimony of the American Indian during a period when conflict over land and resources, cultural stereotypes, and national policies caused tensions between Native American Indians and Euro-American reformers. This paper will attempt to sum up the plight of the American Indian during this period in American history. American Indians shaped their critique of modern America through their exposure to and experience with â€Å"civilized,† non-Indian American people. Because these Euro-Americans considered traditional Indian lifestyle savage, they sought to assimilate the Indians into their civilized culture. With the increase in industrialization, transportation systems, and the desire for valuable resources (such as coal, gold, etc.) on Indian-occupied land, modern Americans had an excuse for â€Å"the advancement of the human race† (9). Euro-Americans moved Indians onto reservations, controlled their education and practice of religion, depleted their land, and erased many of their freedoms. The national result of this â€Å"conquest of Indian communities† was a steady decrease of Indian populations and drastic increase in non-Indian populations during the nineteenth century (9). It is natural that many American Indians felt fearful that their culture and people wer e slowly vanishing. Modern America to American Indians meant the destruction of their cultural pride and demise of their way of life. American Indians associated many t... ... the â€Å"advancement of the Indian race† in a Euro-American-dominated society. These endeavors bring us back to the meaning of the title, Talking Back to Civilization . The fundamental of American government that was the greatest aid to the American Indians in their plight was their freedom of speech; without it, it is questionable whether American Indians would have been so progressive in finding justice. Convicting and compelling, words can be a powerful asset. In a way, words and voice were used to preserve the American Indian's distinctive identity; they were used as a weapon to hold on to whatever culture they had left. Words also documented the American Indian plight so people in the future (like us) could understand how distinctive they really were. Works Cited Hoxie, Frederick E., ed. Talking Back to Civilization . Boston: Bedford, 2001.

Contributions of Thomas Jefferson :: essays research papers

In the year 1800, Thomas Jefferson succeeded John Adams and became the next President of the United States. When coming into office he had numerous ideas of how he wanted to have the country run. Also, in being the front man to the Republican Party he had several people supporting those ideas. However, Jefferson soon realized that not all of his ideas would be able to be incorporated into the government as simply as he assumed and furthermore that some of his ideas were not as great as the assumed. Nevertheless, although Jefferson may not have lived up to all of his campaign promises and the expectations of his party, he did use his time as president efficiently and developed the new reputation of the United States. Jefferson was called â€Å"The Man of the People† with his philosophy of government being to put more power into the hands of the people and limiting the power of government. He was concerned that high taxes, standing armies, and civic corruption could demolish American liberty by giving too much authority to the government. Moreover, Jefferson thought common liberty required a common good and to put this ahead of one’s personal wellbeing and make sure to keep the government from growing out of control. He thought the most honorable citizens were the knowledgeable farmers and that cities were a breeding ground for those who would pose a threat to liberty. This was because men who relied on merchants or factory proprietors for employment could manipulate their employees’ votes, as opposed to farmers who were their own bosses. To a degree Thomas Jefferson was pragmatic when it came to foreign affairs. As an alternative to doing what his political party anticipated him to do he would make decisions based on the â€Å"common good† of the country. For instance, in 1803 when Jefferson was in the midst of his plan to rid America of its national debt, he bought the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon Bonaparte for $15 million, which was nearly the price of the national debt he was trying to dispose of. Being realistic Jefferson bought it because it was a bargain to pay for nearly doubling the size of the United States, made it so the U.S wasn’t sandwiched between Britain and France during the Napoleonic Wars, and acquired New Orleans. However, most Federalists opposed the purchase and Americans didn’t get a chance to vote on whether or not to buy it.

Genre and artist case study

Most Post-Punk music tends to keep that British essence about it, bands use their accents to help shape their music, and this is very much the case with the Arctic Monkeys. Now a days Post-Punk incorporates electronic sounds or dance music instead of the dated ass's disco. The original Post-Punk movement was influenced by Crackpot, Dub and Disco Of the sass's. But now Post-Punk revivalists like Interpol, Editors, and White Lies tend to edge toward a more atmospheric Post-Punk sound optimized by Echo and the Funnymen and Joy Division. Issues which commonly affect this genre are typically mild.I don't think that Post-Punk Revival has a major problem, unlike Hip-Hop or Dance genres. Post-Punk Revival is more of an artistic genre, where artists are more unconcerned with re-creating music from the past and so forth. Although I think that the more recent bands Post-Punk Revival bands such as The Bravery, Arctic Monkeys and Franz Ferdinand tend to have more problems with attitude. This laid back uncaring attitude comes across and the dress styles they bring with them affects people in our everyday lives, fashion is based around these types of music, and at the moment in particular.Shops like River Island and Tops all portray the music sound. And with the style comes the attitude which I personally think a lot of people are adopting. It's ore of a culture thing, as with all types of music, Indies has become a lifestyle. ‘The Indies spirit has been commodities and re-envisioned as a marketable lifestyle just like punk, Alternative, and Grunge before it†¦ ‘ Sean McCabe www. Edition. CNN. Com Post-punk is appealing to people because of the straight forward lyrics and catchy melodies.The lyrics are often about everyday life, and is seen as something that a lot of people can link to, this is another reason that it is part of our lifestyle, it talks about our lifestyle. When is comes to working relationships in the genre the key issues are cackles and unprof essional artists. One great example of an artist like this is Pete Doherty, who at one point was arrested twice in a matter of days. His manager was involved in a hit and run incident where he was using Doherty car. The singer being charged with supplying illegal drugs and other events such as rehab. Drug problem like his can also mean gig's being cancelled or ruined.And these sort of people can be hard to work with in this industry. ‘The best relationships are nurtured over the years and have been built on mutual trust and respect for different gifts we have as musicians and music equines professionals. ‘ Christopher Knap. Independent Music Consultant. Agree with this and think that this IS a common mistake in this genre, artist's come to the music industry thinking that they are in once their name gets big, but really they need to build a working relationship with colleagues. And the working relationship means that, now that they are in the spotlight they can't just do whatever they like.A history about the Arctic Monkeys The band the Arctic Monkeys are a Post-Punk Revivalist band from Sheffield, England. The Band is made up of front man Alex Turner, fellow guitarist's Cook, Bassist Nick Anomaly and Drummer Matt Holders. Bassist Andy Nicholson was the bassist of the band when the band shot to fame in 2006. Incision's reason for leaving the band was that he was suffering from fatigue. But it is now known that Nicholson was paid off by the band after they had found themselves being more of a band with Nick Maloney.We sorts found ourselves in a situation where we wanted to move forward† Alex Turner – Arctic Monkeys on Split NAME Interview The Arctic Monkeys shoot to fame – The Arctic Monkeys where one of the Auk's biggest bands in the New Millennium. Their rise began in 2005, when hey started getting offers from major labels. However the band were sticking to the Post-Punk/linden attitude of a smaller independent music label, as they tended to give the artist creative freedom with their music. â€Å"l like you, but I'm not sure about this bit, and that song could do with this changing†¦ And we never listened† – Alex Turner Arctic Monkeys Biography 2006 Seam's Craig think that this was a housewives for the Arctic Monkeys, as if they has of been signed up by a major up fading out. Also their music wouldn't have been original. ‘The market tempts bands to follow the record industry money. Those that adopt the success formula may well make it but, whatever the returns, it will be in the knowledge that they sold out their talent Seam's Craig Arctic Monkeys Biography 2006 As the Arctic Monkeys had declined offers from major labels, you would think why didn't etc remain an underground band.

The Psychodynamics of Depression

Depression – Psychodynamic Theory I have been interested in the mechanics of depression since childhood, when my mother ‘suffered with her nerves’ – her explanation of what I now recognise as a very severe melancholia defined by Burton in 1621 as â€Å"a kind of dotage without a fever, having for his ordinary companions fear and sadness, without any apparent occasion† (p739). My interest was further compounded by my clients, Valerie and Jo, when it become apparent to me that depression is one of the most common and debilitating phenomenon that I will probably have to encounter in my role as a Counsellor. Before beginning, it may be useful to briefly consider Freud’s warning that depression is not a homogenous group of conditions and that it probably involves more than one aetiology (Freud 1917). It can reflect underlying cultural and environmental trends in addition to physiological factors. (Desjerlais et al. 1995) A review of the literature reveals that research relating to the nature and origins of the psychodynamic theory of depression is rich in contributions to the theme, thus this essay of necessity represents a high-altitude skim over a massive topic. I will concentrate on authors who have made some of the most seminal contributions to the development of the theory, namely Abraham, Freud, Jacobson, Klein and Mahler. (There are, in actuality, numerous other pioneers in the cultivation of this theory, such as Malan, Sandler, Spiz, Bibring, Rado, Blatt, Benedek, Lindemann, Kohut, some of which, due to word limit, I have not included). Bowlby‘s theory of attachment, although not psychodynamic per se, is also considered, because the way in which people relate to loss of attachment appears relevant to our understanding of depression. Schore, who describes the neuroscience of attachment and how the brain of the parent and infant interact, has also been included The first thing we need to do is to be clear about four quite different ways that we may talk about depression. Jacobson referred to them as normal, neurotic, psychotic and grief reactions (1971 p19). What Jacobson (1971) referred to as normal depression, appears to be akin to what Klein referred to as the depressive position (Segal 1973). She, who it appears from my literature search (Klein 1940, Meltzer 1989, Spillius 1983, Money Kyle 1964), more than any other psychoanalytic pioneer viewed the infant as a miniature adult, found evidence of a â€Å"depressive position† from birth (Klein 1932 in Meltzer 1989 p37). This is essentially a state of health, a capacity to bear guilt, stay in touch with mental pain and emotional problems and bring thinking to bear on situations (Meltzer 1998). According to Klein we oscillate between our ability to stay with painful situations or seek temporary relief through splitting and projection (defence mechanisms), returning to the paranoid-schizoid position – the state of mind existing in babies ; one that is constantly returned to throughout life to greater or lesser degrees (Klein 1932 in Money Kyle 1964). Defence mechanisms are defined as tactics which the Ego develops to help deal with the ID and the Super Ego (Freud 1923). Freud introduced the term ‘ego' in â€Å"The Ego and The Id† (1923). He holds that only a portion of the mind is conscious and the rest lies hidden deep within the subconscious, ruled by conflicting forces of a super-strong libido (id) and super-controlling morality (superego) all translated through the ego, which attempts to balance the two through rationality (1923). Libido is described as the ‘energy of the sexual instincts‘ (Frued 1925). Neurotic depression or reactive depression can be understood as an exaggerated response to stress due to a weak state of ego strength combined with a failure of the external support system. Neurotic depression consists of a fall in self esteem after the ego has been abandoned by its ideal (Sandler 1965)). In modern day terminology, Jacobson's psychotic depression could be termed a severe depressive episode with psychotic symptoms (WHO 1992). Brown and Harris’ studies state that early loss appears tied to the emergence of psychotic versus neurotic symptom patterns (1986). Bowlby thought a mother-child attachment could not be broken in the first years of life without permanent and serious damage to the child’s future development (Bowlby 1973). Jacobson said there is fusion of the self and the object[1] epresentation within the ego and superego, â€Å"calling forth attack from an extremely pathological sadistic and idealised superego on a fused and highly devalued selfâ€Å" (Lund 1991, p533). The capacity for sadness is absent because the object and its representation are â€Å"devalued and united with the devalued representation of selfâ€Å" (p534). Th is appears to be evidenced by Jo who was referred for treatment of â€Å"severe anxiety and panic attacks,† and whose symptoms include extreme suspiciousness and intolerance of her peers, and delusional ideas relative to her mother. These psychotic-like symptoms could be related to the treatment she received from her mother who maltreated her and ultimately abandoned her when she was a toddler. Freud contrasted the mental processes involved in mourning with those of depression which he termed melancholia (1917); the latter could now be referred to as a severe depressive episode (WHO 1992). He regarded both mourning and depression as grief reactions to the loss of someone or something loved (1917). The distinction between the two conditions he described with the statement that in contrast to the mourner, the melancholic suffers â€Å"an extraordinary diminution in his self regard, and impoverishment of his ego on a grand scale† (1917 p 153). The explanation of this key difference appears to rest on the psychological concept of identification. Freud argued that part of the self had undergone a change in depression through its becoming identified with the lost object (1917). Object loss refers to traumatic separation from significant objects of attachment, usually mother (Bowlby 1973). In relation to the regressive identification Freud said â€Å"Thus the shadow of the object fell upon the ego†¦. † implying that the low self esteem of the melancholic is directly related to the condition of the introjected[2] object (Freud 1917 p243 ). Abraham also stressed the importance of introjection in melancholia (1911). Whereas mourning recognises the loss of an object that was â€Å"good† and â€Å"loved,† the melancholic’s relationship to the lost object is necessarily more ambivalent, i. e. a dense complex of love and hate (Klein 1940 in Money-Kyle 1998 p 142). Freud stressed the importance of heightened ambivalence in melancholia. He suggests that melancholia involves a regression to the oral narcissism phase of the libido, when an identification with the lost object occurs (1917). At the very early oral stage, described by Freud as primary narcissism ( 1914) and by Fairbairn as â€Å"mouth ego with a breast,† (1952 p87 ), the mouth feeds on the breast and is temporarily content. However, disturbances in feeding and other related irritations generate the agony of want and pains of anxiety. Consequently, fixation at the early oral phase results in the registration of a painful (bad) internal wanting and a nourishing (good) something somewhere in the vague uncharted outside of the child. Narcissism is described as an orientation towards internal objects, characterised by self-preoccupation, lack of empathy, and unconscious deficits in self-esteem (Kernburg 1969). Jo’s refusal to eat when in a severely depressed state could be viewed as her regression to oral narcissism. Freud also believed too many positive experiences during the first year of life could set an individual up for developing depression later on in life (Comer, 1992). He posited that if an individual is nurtured too much as an infant, she will not develop beyond the oral stage of development because there was never a need to. Although his theories emphasised the importance of early experience on later development, I understand from the literature it was Abraham (1911) who first made this distinction. He defined melancholia as an ambivalent feeling of love and hate toward the self that arises from an early infantile disappointment in love (1911). He too connected loss at the oral stage to maladaptive coping during subsequent losses later in life (1924). Abraham tells us that melancholic clients are inaccessible to any criticism of their mode of thinking (1924). In them can be seen the narcissistic character of thought and disregard for people who confront them with reality as in the case of Jo who missed a session following my interpretation about her eating habits. Expanding on this theme, Abraham summarised the dynamic factors underlying depression, as follows (1924): 1. A constitutional factor of an over accentuation of oral eroticism. 2. A special fixation of the libido at the oral stage. 3. A severe injury to infantile narcissism. 4. Occurrence of the primary disappointment pre-oedipal. [3] 5. Repetition of the primary disappointment in later life. These points appear to be evidenced by Valerie, my client in her late forties. Her husband died four years ago and she was referred by her GP because of â€Å"troublesome feelings of depression, isolation and lack of identityâ€Å". Her developmental history revealed that her mother had always been a source of tension, and had been severely depressed while Valerie was growing up. Valerie felt neglected and abandoned by her. She had been left with a negligent nanny after she was born and was ill with jaundice and gastro-enteritis. It took three months for the neglect to be discovered and for her to be returned home. Throughout her childhood, her mother remained predominantly in a withdrawn state in bed. However, she remained very dominating and ridiculing in manner of her daughter. In response to Valerie’s traumatic bereavement, her mother again seemed preoccupied and self-absorbed. Valerie’s opening remark to me was striking, â€Å"I want to be a calm sensible person with no feelingsâ€Å". Since her mother spent her time criticising Valerie and ridiculing her separate thinking (her mother resented Valerie’s creativity having thrown the contents of the rubbish bin on one of her prize paintings), this comment appears to represent her wish to conform to her mother's requirements. However, this statement appears to underline the central dynamic to understanding depression, for with the desire for identification with an ideal object, there appears no room for separate thinking or expression of needy feelings (Jacobson 1964). All tensions related to one’s own needs and how the idealised object is ignoring them gets projected and then experienced somatically (Abraham 1924). The lack of availability of a containing mother[4] was graphically illustrated in a dream, where Valerie went to get food from a supermarket. There was no basket and she came out, arms full of tin cans. Suddenly, her mother's sister shouted from a house window: â€Å"Where is your mother? † Valerie dropped the cans and opened her mouth to speak. It was full of blood and bits of glass. Valerie also reported to me another dream where she swallowed two â€Å"tablets of stones† that lay heavy on her stomach. This could be symbolic of the unresponsive stone breasts of her mother. Also it reminds me of the Ten Commandments, two tablets of stone not to be disobeyed (her mother). The oral origins seem apparent, with the brittleness of the breast and the aggressiveness to it. This history seems to confirm all Abraham's points. The constitutionally inherited family history of depression, her mother having a breakdown when Valerie was born; The fixation of the libido at the oral level, with the sensation of having swallowed the tablets of stone breasts when depressed and also the oral aggressiveness, with the cut glass in the mouth. The severe injury to infantile narcissism was evidenced by her mother's unresponsiveness. The first disappointment pre-oedipally, starting at birth with being left with the neglectful nanny; with the repetition of the primary disappointment in later life and with her mother's lack of support at the time of her husband’s bereavement. Valerie told me she felt ‘guilt and shame’ about ‘being depressed‘. To explain the peculiar intensity of the sense of guilt in melancholia, Freud suggested that the destructive component of the instincts had entered the superego and turned against it (1917). He also noted in some depressed people a high proneness to guilt; ‘that tendency toward self-reproach which death invariably leaves among the survivors. ’ (Freud 1925 in Stengel 1969 p 237). He pointed out the increased severity of moral judgement that occurs in depression, and described the setting up of a ‘critical agency’ as part of child development, which ‘henceforth will judge the ego’ (Freud 1923 in O'Shaughnessy 1999 p861). This is the superego and Freud suggested that â€Å"the relationship between the ego and the superego (see definition page 1) becomes completely intelligible if they are carried back to the child’s attitude towards his parentsâ€Å" (p861). The superego is coloured by the child’s own hostile and rivalrous feelings, so that ‘the more a child controls his aggression towards another, the more tyrannical does his superego subsequently become’ (p862). The self-recriminations seen clinically are recriminations made of a loved object that has been displaced (Freud 1923) as the following exchange between Valerie and myself appears to illustrate: V. Life sucks T. It sucks? V. Yeah, but then why should it be any different? I’m so ghastly and useless – I don’t deserve to be happy. When Valerie announces ‘I’m so ghastly and useless – I don’t deserve to be happy,’ she is perhaps not really criticising herself, but a purported ideal that has let her down. The self-tormenting is then a tormenting of the ideal object (mother) that had abandoned her at a time of need. The sadomasochistic process of self-criticism, that so dominates depression, goes on in a relentless fashion. No true mourning, with relinquishment of the object, can occur because of the unresolved ambivalent dependence on an ideal object (Freud 1923). Valerie’s grief at her husband’s death could be seen as an extension of her more hidden yearning for her mother’s love. Her unrealistic hopes based on compensatory exaggerations of unsatisfied wishes and needs, may have laid down a vulnerability to depressive illness because these are unsustainable in adulthood. Klein described an early ore-oedipal stage to the formation of the superego, with a very harsh superego in evidence at the oral stage, which becomes modified over time, with experiences, to becoming more benign, less demanding and more tolerant towards human frailities (Money-Kyle 1964). She comments on clinging to the pathological early severe superego as: â€Å"the idea of perfection is so compelling as it disproves the idea of disintegration† (Klein 1932 in Meltzer 1989 p270). In healthy development the superego may take on, over time, a benign guiding role, but in those with a predisposition to depression, the superego can be â€Å"a pure culture of the death instinct which often succeeds in driving the ego into death† (Freud 1917, p332). This may have been the case with Valerie’s deceased husband who was also diagnosed as depressed; she feels his death may have been suicide. It is interesting that he told her his body was â€Å"tired of livingâ€Å", perhaps suggesting that the ego was located in the body awaiting to be attacked by the superego. The ego can only kill itself if, as a result of a return to the object-cathexis, it can treat itself as an object (1917). Object cathexis occurs in the Id and is the investment of energy in the image of an object. Suicide also harbours murderous feelings towards others (Campbell & Hale 1991). Kohut viewed depression as coming from a lack of good experiences with what he termed the mirroring self-object[5], such as having interested and involved parents (1971); this results in problems with self-esteem regulation. Parkin considers that a fall in self esteem is the hallmark of ‘all simple depression’ (by this, I imagine, he means what Jacobson referred to as neurotic depression), and a heightening of self criticism to be the hallmark of melancholia (I imagine, he is referring to Freud’s theory. ) (Parkin 1976). It is the loss of self-esteem, many psychodynamic theorists claim, that starts a person down the path of depression (Comer, 1992). Jacobson stresses the crucial importance in depression of the loss of self esteem and the feelings of impoverishment, helplessness, weakness and inferiority (1971). Freud believed feelings of anger and self-hatred develop from thoughts about unresolved conflicts. As a result of feelings of self-hatred, the individual feels shameful and worthless and loses her self-esteem (Comer, 1992). Jo suffers shameful feelings about herself including taking anxiolytic medication to ‘dampen down my distress‘. She commented that her self esteem is ‘as low as my socks. ’ She lost her job as a result of her panic attacks. Gaylin (1968) reasons, if a person is depressed over the loss of a job it is not because the job symbolizes a loved object but, like a loved object, â€Å"it can symbolize one's self-esteem† (p. 7). Klein said that whether an individual loses her self-esteem depends on the quality of her relationship as an infant with her caregiver during the first year of life (Wetzel 1984). She claimed the Oedipus Complex to be a part of the depressive position, occurring at the oral stage of development (Segal, 1984). Her work was criticized, especially by Anna Freud, but the significance of her theory appears to be that, if individuals have not had the early experiences that enable them to internalise a good object, then mourning as adults will be complicated by significant depression (Wetzel 1984). Klein's interpretation to the origin of depression closely resembles that of Abraham and Freud's theories that an individual can develop a predisposition for the illness, but her contributions appear to have been criticised on the grounds of seeking to establish an exact parallel between the child’s developmental stages and adult depressive illness (Spillius 1983). I understand from the literature that most psychoanalysts accept infantile precursors to depressive illness but stop short of Klein’s view. Mahler acknowledged that the mother-child relationship is crucial in the development of basic moods, including depression (1966). However, in contrast to Klein, she believed the depressive position does not occur at the oral stage, but later in toddler-hood, during the separation-individuation period[6] (1966). More recently other authors have been trying to differentiate two types of depression basing themselves in part on the writings of Freud on the processes of oral incorporation and superego formation, and considering that it would not be fruitful to integrate these two mechanisms from such distinct phases of psychic development (Spitz 1947 p 723). Blatt subsequently conceptualised depression in accordance with the child’s level of object representations and made the distinction between anaclitic depression and introjective depression. Anaclitic is oral where there is relatively low evidence of guilt. Introjective depression is more oedipal based where the sufferer may harbour intense feelings of guilt because the superego is overly harsh (Blatt 1974). Bowlby thought depression resulted from a failure of secure attachment early in life (1973). He described a series of attachment and protest behaviours which, if not responded to, would proceed to a state of despair in infants and finally to states of detachment. This work has burgeoned into the field now known as attachment research. To summarize this extensive body of research very briefly, we now know the attachment that the child establishes with the caregiver during development may be the prototype for all subsequent bonds with other objects (1973). The capacity to develop close and loving relationships in adulthood protects against depression and this is influenced by the attachment patterns developed in childhood. Anxiously attached individuals seek interpersonal contact and are excessively dependant on others. Compulsively self-reliant individuals are excessively autonomous and avoid close intimate interpersonal relationships (1973). Both of these preoccupations can create a vulnerability to depression. In agreement with Klein, Bowlby suggests that anger and guilt are part of mourning reactions. It is not the presence of anger or guilt that is pathological in mourning but their appropriateness that is the crucial issue (1969). Schore describes the neuroscience of attachment and how the brain of the parent and infant interact (2003 ). He speaks in depth about the neurobiology of the developing mind during the first three years of life and how the right brain processes are integrally involved in attachments and the development of the self. He spells out very clearly how insensitive parenting leads to emotion dysregulation patterns in childhood and later in adulthood. He understands insecure attachment as emotion dysregulation and that psychotherapy is the process of changing neural patterns in the brain, the right brain in particular. There are clear points of contact between the attachment perspective and some psychodynamic ideas. As mentioned, one of Klein’s hypotheses was that the reaction to loss occurring later in the life cycle will be influenced by revived aspects of losses experienced at the earliest stages in development (Segal 1973). The early loss of the maternal object may result in depression later in life if the infant has not yet been able to establish a representation of a loved object securely within herself (Segal 1973). There appear to be clear parallels between this formulation and the idea of maladaptive internal working models of attachment in Bowlby’s thinking about early loss and depression. Evaluation Each of the theories probably has a contribution to make to the overall picture especially when we recollect that depression is a complex rather than a unitary phenomenon (Freud 1917). Common to all these theories is their invoking of the crucial role of the infantile phase of development. Each of them asserts that problems in the trajectory to eventual adulthood commence in early childhood and can constitute a vulnerability to depression. Following my research, I am hopefully better placed to help my clients. For instance during our sessions Valerie is able to reflect how her deceased husband had provided her with an experience of being loved and cared for that she had longed for from her mother. Working through unresolved feelings of loss arising from initial losses and disentangling them from feelings related to present losses may be invaluable in the resolution of her depression As for Jo, we have spent considerable time exploring her panic attacks and her fear of expressing her depressive feelings. She fears that ‘If I start crying, I may never stop’ and that nobody will be able to bear her pain. This links with Bion’s concept of containment (Bion 1962) as defined on page 5. If I can contain her pain and grief then this may help Jo internalise a sense that her pain can be borne and thought about. Finally, I am reminded that my own experiences of depression can either interfere with or enhance my capacity to help. Self reflection and supervision are crucial if I am to make the best use of my humanity. REFERENCES ICD-10. Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines: World Health Organization, 1992. Abraham K. 1911-1968)Selected papers of Karl Abraham. New York: Basic Books Inc. Bion WR. (1962)Learning from Experience. London: Karnac. 97. Blatt S. (1974). Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107-157. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss, Vol. 2: Separation -anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books Brown & Harris (1986). Life events and illness. New York: The Guilford Press. Burton R. (1920)Anatomy of Melancholy. New York: Tudor Campbell & Hale (1991). Suicidal acts. In J. Holmes (Ed. ), Textbook of psychotherapy in psychiatric practice (pp. 287-306). Comer R. (1992). Abnormal psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company Desjerlais et al (1995) World Mental Health: Problems and Priorities in Low-Income Countries. London: Oxford University Press. Fairbairn W. (1952)Psychoanalytic Studies of the Personality. London: Routledge Freud S. (1917). Mourning and melancholia. In J. Strachey (Ed. ), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1914). On Narcisism. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud V. 14. London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1923/1960). The ego and the id. J. Riviere (Trans. ), J. Strachey (Ed. ). New York: W. W. Norton. Freud S. (1914). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud V. 14. London: Hogarth Press Freud S. (1925)(trans. J. Riviere) Collected Papers. Vol. I. , London: Hogarth. Jacobson, E. (1964) The Self and the Object World. New York, International Universities Press Jacobson E. 1971)Depression: Comparative Studies of Normal, Neurotic & Psychotic Conditions. New York: International Universities Press Kernberg O, (1969)A contribution to the Ego-psychological critique of the Kleinian school. Int J Psychoanal 50: 317 – 33 Klein M. (1940). Writings of Melanie Klein. London: Hogarth. Vol. 1. p344-369. Klein M. (1932). The psycho-analysis of children. London: Hogarth Press. Roger Money-Kyl e The Writings of Melanie Klein. (Ed. ). 4 Vols. New York, Free (1964-75)Press. Kohut H. (1971)The Analysis of the Self. New York, International Universities Press Lund C (1991)Psychotic depression: psychoanalytic psychopathology in relation to treatment and management, B J Psychiatry 158: 523 – 8 Mahler M. (1966). Some preliminary notes on the development of basic moods, including depression. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal, 250-258. Meltzer, D. (1998)The Kleinian Development (New Edition). London: Karnac Books O'Shaughnessy E. (1999)Relating to the Superego. Int. J. Psychoanal; 80, p861-870. Parkin A (1976)Melancholia: A reconsideration, J Am Psychoanalytical Assoc. 24: 123 – 39 Parkes C. 1972) Bereavement: Studies of grief in adult life. New York: International Universities Press. Rubin R 1989Neuroendocrine aspects of primary endogenous depressiion VIII. Psychoneuroendocrinology; 14(3):217–29. Sandler J (1965)Notes on childhood depression. Int J Psychoanal 46: 88 – 96 Schore A (2003)Affect Regulation and The Repair of the Self New York: WW Norton & Co, Inc. Segal H. (1973)Introduction to the work of Melan ie Klein. London: Hogarth Press. Spitz R. (1946) Anaclitic depression: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood II. Psychoanalytical Study of the Child, 2, 53. Spillius, E. (1983). Some developments from the work of Melanie Klein. , Int. J. Psychoanal. , 64:321-332. Stengel E (1969). Suicide and Attempted Suicide. Harmondsworth: Pelican Books. Wetzel, J. W. (1984). Clinical handbook of depression. New York: Gardner Press. ———————– [1]Objects are primarily formed from early interactions with (usually) parents. (Klein 1940) [2] introjection means to incorporate (characteristics of a person or object) into one’s own psychic unconsciously (Klein 1940). 3] Oedipal can be described as unconscious sexual desire in a child, especially a male child, for the parent of the opposite sex, usually occurring around the age of 3 – 5 years and accompanied by hostility to the parent of the same sex. Pre-oedipal means prior to the oedipal phase in development (Freud 1923). [4] containing mother refers to the process whereby the infant’s emo tions can be held in mind and ‘digested’ by the mother, who can then return them in a more manageable form. Infants need repeated experiences of containment (Bion 1962), in order to develop ways of dealing with their own distress, i. . before they can introject the containing ‘good enough mother’ (Winnicott 1960a) and feel the mother as a definite internalized presence (Bion 1962). [5] â€Å"mirroring self object† is loosely translated as â€Å"mother,† for in the external world it is most often the mother who performs the function. The gleam in her eye mirrors the infant’s self. (Bion 1962). [6] Mahler described separation-individuation as the steps through which the infant passes in developing a more stable awareness of separateness from the mother (1966).